ENG508 Latest Final Term Past Papers 2025

Utterance, Sentence, and Proposition

Huang (2014) explains that a proposition is essentially a declarative statement that, when spoken, conveys either a truth or a falsehood about some real-world scenario. The term proposition comes from philosophy and is considered the most basic level of language. It refers to the essential meaning conveyed by words listed in the lexicon.

A sentence is a collection of grammatical elements that take shape through utterances. Huang (2014) highlights that it is a sequence of words formed by applying grammatical rules to create meaning. Sentences occupy a higher position in the linguistic hierarchy and can include multiple propositions. When grammar structures these propositions, they become complete sentences. Fundamentally, a sentence communicates a full idea, while a proposition only conveys a portion of that idea.


Literal and Non-Literal Meanings

Saeed (2003) defines literal meanings as those found in a language’s dictionary meanings that objectively describe the real-world referent of a word. These are also known as conventional or conceptual meanings and are shaped by societal norms. Literal meanings express the straightforward, factual usage of words, such as "I am hungry" or "I am starving."

Semantics and Pragmatics

There are three main perspectives on how semantics and pragmatics are separated. One group asserts that semantics, morphology, and syntax are the core fields of linguistics. They argue that pragmatics being dependent on individual interpretation falls outside the realm of pure linguistics. This view is called semanticist.

Conversely, another group contends that semantics only deals with conceptual meaning, while real communication happens in the realm of pragmatics. They believe that without pragmatics, meaning remains incomplete, as context is essential for full understanding. This perspective is known as pragmatism.

Idea Theory of Meaning

Another theory suggests that meanings are mental constructs concepts, ideas, or thoughts that shape how language conveys meaning. According to Portner (2005), this idea theory of meaning proposes that these mental images determine how language is structured and understood. However, this theory faces two challenges: it must offer a clear psychological explanation of what concepts are and must create a separate concept for every meaningful element of language.

Meanings Are out in the World

Certain philosophical views argue that meanings exist externally, as part of the social practices we engage in. For instance, some theorists liken language to a giant game governed by rules: when someone asks “What time is it?”, the expected response is “It’s X o’clock.” However, this language game approach hasn’t convinced many semanticists. Modern linguistics suggests that language structures are not arbitrary but instead reveal deep cognitive patterns rooted in human thought. Moreover, this theory tends to downplay intuition’s role in constructing meaning.

Meaning of Sentences and Truth Conditions

A sentence’s meaning involves knowing the conditions under which it can be true or false. Meaning, therefore, is not whether a sentence is actually true or false in reality, but rather what circumstances would make it so. In this framework, the possible worlds that a sentence refers to are not entirely fictional but closely related to real-life possibilities. The meaning of a sentence here is tied to its truth conditions the set of possible scenarios in which the sentence would be accurate.

Linguistic and Conceptual Meaning

Linguistic meaning, also known as denotative, logical, or cognitive meaning, is what dictionaries usually provide. Language functions at multiple levels at once, and three levels phonological, syntactic, and semantic are necessary for understanding or producing utterances. Each level can be derived from the others during different stages of linguistic processing.

Social Meaning

Social meaning refers to the clues a piece of language provides about the social environment of the speaker. By examining aspects like pronunciation, word choice, and style, we can identify the speaker’s social or regional identity. Social meaning can also reveal the relationship between the speaker and the listener, providing context that goes beyond literal interpretation.

Affective Meaning

Affective meaning reflects the speaker’s own feelings or attitudes about the listener or the subject of conversation. Leech (1981) explains that affective meaning often appears alongside conceptual meaning, shaping how words convey emotional nuance. Intonation, voice tone, and cultural norms of politeness also influence how these feelings are expressed. Affective meaning is typically considered a secondary layer in language use.

Reflected and Collocative Meaning

Reflected meaning arises when one sense of a word or phrase overlaps with another, usually due to strong associations or frequent usage. According to Leech (1981), these associations can evoke multiple meanings in the listener’s mind, particularly when words have taboo or emotionally charged meanings. Similarly, collocative meaning refers to the way certain words naturally pair together, carrying additional shades of meaning through habitual co-occurrence.

Language is a fundamental tool for expressing our thoughts, sharing our ideas, and building connections within society. Each word or sentence carries a deeper meaning and represents a small part of the speaker’s mind. Semantics helps us understand the literal meaning of words, while pragmatics explores how those words are used in real-life conversations.

When we form a sentence, we create a complete unit of expression that often consists of multiple propositions. Propositions represent partial meanings, but together in a sentence, they build a coherent idea. Beyond this, affective meaning reflects the speaker’s emotions and attitude, while social meaning provides clues about the speaker’s background or social context. All these aspects work together to make everyday language both dynamic and meaningful.

Conclusion

Language is a complex system where meaning emerges at various levels from the mental concepts in our minds to the social practices that shape communication. Propositions and sentences work together to build meaning, while context handled by pragmatics ensures that meaning resonates in real-life interactions. Whether shaped by literal dictionary definitions, social context, or emotional undertones, language is ultimately a rich tapestry that mirrors both our mental structures and social lives. Understanding these layers allows us to appreciate not just what language says, but also how it says it and why it matters.

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