Soc101 Final Term Latest Past Papers 2025

Theories of Social Class and Stratification

Max Weber (1864–1920) built upon Karl Marx’s concepts by introducing a more detailed and nuanced theory of how social classes are structured. While Marx emphasized the economic dimension of class conflict as the driving force behind social inequality, Weber proposed a multifaceted approach. According to Weber, social stratification cannot be solely understood through economic factors; rather, it encompasses three interconnected components: class, status, and power. This multidimensional perspective reveals a more complex social landscape, one where a multitude of social positions and inequalities exist, surpassing the binary class divisions described by Marx.


In Weber’s theory, status refers to the differences in social honor and prestige that people experience within society. These status distinctions are expressed through lifestyles, including modes of speech, dress, housing, and occupation. Such indicators of social standing help establish an individual’s position within the broader social hierarchy. People who share a similar status often form communities where they develop a shared sense of identity and belonging.

A key question emerges: why do societies exhibit social stratification? The structural-functional perspective offers one answer: social inequality plays a necessary and beneficial role in maintaining social order. n 1945, Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore argued that social stratification serves a purpose by making sure that society’s most critical positions are occupied by those who are best suited for them. As a result, the existence of stratification systems across all societies can be understood as serving a vital function in maintaining societal stability and progress.

Social Class as a Subculture

Culture is typically defined as the collection of language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and material artifacts that are transmitted from one generation to the next. Within this broad cultural framework exist subcultures distinct groups that exhibit unique patterns of behavior and sets of beliefs, values, and material goods. Different subcultures can develop based on characteristics like ethnicity, age groups, professions, or social strata. Consequently, social class itself can be viewed as a subculture, shaping the daily lives of individuals within its boundaries.

The subculture associated with a particular social class helps individuals adapt to the lifestyle expected of their class and prepares future generations to take on the same social status. This transmission of subcultural norms, values, and behaviors occurs through socialization, where children learn the expectations and practices of their social class from their families and immediate communities.

Oscar Lewis, in the mid-1960s, introduced the concept of the "culture of poverty." According to Lewis, poverty is perpetuated through the values and behaviors of the poor, which differ fundamentally from those of other social groups. These attitudes and behavioral patterns, shaped by common experiences, are passed from parents to children, creating a subculture that sustains poverty across generations.

Social Mobility and Openness of Society

Social mobility describes how individuals or groups move up or down within the hierarchy of a society, and this process is heavily influenced by whether the society permits such movement. In open societies, individuals can attain their status primarily through personal effort, education, and achievement. Societies that are open promote social mobility, giving capable individuals from lower classes the chance to rise economically and socially. In contrast, closed societies offer limited opportunities for upward mobility, with people typically confined to the social class and occupation of their birth.

Industrial societies, with their emphasis on equality of opportunity and meritocracy, generally support higher levels of social mobility and are considered more open. Pre-industrial societies, however, tend to be more rigid and closed, as people often remain tied to their family’s traditional occupations and social standing.

Inter-generational Mobility

Inter-generational mobility measures the changes in social class status across generations within a family, typically comparing the social position of parents and their children. It reflects how individuals’ opportunities are shaped by the circumstances of their birth, as well as the broader social structures and policies of their society.

Open societies are more likely to encourage inter-generational mobility by offering equal opportunities for individuals to develop their skills and pursue their aspirations. Such mobility not only allows people to fulfill their potential but also ensures that the most qualified individuals fill key positions within the society, enhancing overall productivity and stability.

Structural Factors Affecting Mobility

Several structural factors shape social mobility. These include the proportion of high- and low-status positions within a society and the availability of opportunities to access those positions. Agricultural economies tend to have a limited number of high-status positions, resulting in lower levels of mobility. In contrast, industrial economies expand the range and number of available occupations, fostering increased specialization and thus greater mobility.

Industrialization contributes to a more intricate division of labor, leading to the creation of new types of jobs and a wider variety of career options. As new high-status positions emerge, individuals have more pathways to improve their social and economic standing. This structural expansion of opportunities contributes to the higher mobility found in industrial societies.

Individual Factors

While social structures can shape the number of prestigious, well-paid positions available in a society, it’s the individual factors that play a big role in determining who ends up in those roles. In other words, it’s important to understand the process of getting access to these opportunities. Individuals must have the right qualifications to enter such positions, but there are many personal factors that can influence whether someone has the needed qualifications.

For example, people may differ in their drive and determination to move up in society. Many individuals actively work to improve their chances of upward mobility by getting a better education. The work habits and attitudes learned early in life can make a big difference in a person’s efforts to improve their position. Of course, working hard does not always guarantee success, but most people who do move up the social ladder have worked hard to achieve it.

Costs of Mobility

Social mobility allows a society to place the most capable people in the most important jobs and gives people the chance to achieve their personal goals. However, it comes with certain costs. A society that encourages mobility also creates expectations that may not be met, which can lead to feelings of frustration and unhappiness. Compared to more traditional societies, mobile societies may see more people facing disappointment and stress.

The pressures of mobility can include the fear of losing status (downward mobility), the challenge of adapting to new roles in the workplace, and the strain on family and social relationships as someone’s position changes. For instance, parents who are focused on career success may come home late and spend less time with their children, which can cause resentment or distance within the family.

The family itself is a social unit that brings people together to raise children. Marriage is often an important part of forming families. Although family and marriage are universal ideas, there is a lot of variation in how they work around the world. Let’s explore these differences and some of the key concepts related to family and marriage.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the study of social class and stratification reveals the complex and dynamic nature of social inequality. While early theorists like Marx focused on economic relations, Weber’s multidimensional approach acknowledges the interplay of class, status, and power. Subcultures within social classes further shape the experiences and expectations of individuals, influencing their ability to achieve social mobility. The openness of a society and its structural factors play a decisive role in enabling or limiting movement within the social hierarchy. Understanding these factors is essential for building societies that are not only economically vibrant but also socially just, offering individuals the freedom to transcend their inherited circumstances and reach their full potential.

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