PHY101 Final Term Past Papers 2025

Memory and Learning: An Inseparable Bond

Memory and learning are deeply intertwined processes that cannot be easily separated. While these terms are often used to describe similar activities, learning generally refers to the initial phase where new information is acquired or encoded. In contrast, memory focuses on the later stages of storing and retrieving that information when needed. However, this division is not absolute; the reason we learn something is so that we can remember it later, and without prior learning, memory would not exist. Psychologists, therefore, frequently describe these processes together encompassing all the stages from encoding to storage and retrieval.


Although people typically consider memory as simply the storage of information, it is, in fact, much more complex. Memory encompasses the entire process of encoding, storing, and recalling information. According to Woodworth, memory can be expressed as:

Memory = L – I – R

where “L” stands for learning, “I” represents the interval or the gap between learning and remembering, and “R” refers to the act of recalling the learned material.

Encoding and Recoding: The First Step

The initial phase of registering new information is called encoding. It involves perceiving incoming data and converting it into a form that the brain can store and recall later. Importantly, encoding is not about making an exact copy of what we see or hear; rather, it involves changing or “recoding” the information to fit our brain’s storage system. A common example is how our visual system transforms light into electrical signals that the brain can interpret and store.

Retrieval: Accessing Stored Memories

Once data has been effectively encoded and preserved, the subsequent phase is retrieval. Retrieval is the act of locating and bringing stored memories into conscious awareness so that we can use them. Although encoding and storage play essential roles, remembering fundamentally depends on the process of retrieval. If we cannot access a memory, it is as though it never existed. In the broadest sense, retrieval includes the conscious and unconscious use of stored information. Earlier, psychologists thought of memory retrieval as merely the active recall of past events or facts. However, we now know that retrieval can happen in more subtle ways as well.

Interestingly, our capacity for long-term memory appears to be limitless. People can continue to acquire and retain new knowledge and skills throughout their lives. Even though older adults may find it harder to remember recent events, their ability to learn new things generally remains intact. For instance, people can keep adding new words to their vocabulary over a lifetime. This ongoing ability to learn is possible because the brain retains a certain flexibility, known as neuroplasticity. However, certain brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, can severely reduce this capacity for new learning.

Types of Memory

A significant type of memory is procedural memory, which helps us recall how to carry out specific skills or tasks. Examples include tying shoelaces, riding a bicycle, or playing cricket. Procedural memory does not rely on conscious thought and is instead expressed through actions. This makes it different from declarative memory, which includes episodic and semantic memory.

Episodic memory involves recalling specific events or experiences from our lives, like a family vacation or a birthday party. These memories are tied to particular times and places and form the narrative of our personal history.

In contrast, semantic memory holds facts and general knowledge about the world for instance, knowing that the chemical formula for water is H₂O or that the earth orbits the sun. Unlike episodic memory, semantic memory isn’t linked to a particular time or place.

Proactive Interference: When Old Memories Clash with New

Sometimes, older memories interfere with our ability to remember new information—a phenomenon known as proactive interference. For example, if you studied sociology last year and are now studying psychology, you might find that sociology concepts keep popping up during your psychology exam, making it harder to remember the new material.

Memory Problems and Disorders

Memory problems are often seen as part of the normal aging process, but now it’s understood that other factors can also contribute to memory loss. A condition called Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) can lead to noticeable forgetfulness. People with MCI can still manage their daily tasks independently, but they may increasingly rely on reminders, notes, and digital aids to keep track of important information.

Primary Motives and Physiological Responses

Primary motives are basic physiological needs such as hunger, thirst, the need for sleep, and the urge to breathe. These instincts are inherent and do not require learning—they are fundamental to sustaining life.

Emotions are closely tied to physical arousal. The body’s physiological changes like a racing heartbeat or a surge of energy amplify the emotions we feel. Individuals who are more aware of these internal bodily changes often experience emotions more vividly.

Cognitive Component

The cognitive aspect of emotions is all about how we interpret different situations or triggers. This interpretation plays a key role in determining how our body reacts emotionally. For instance, imagine you’re sitting alone in a dark room, watching a scary movie, and you suddenly hear a loud noise. Your mind instantly processes this situation as a threat, and your body reacts with fear, even though there may not be any real danger. This example shows how our perception of a situation whether real or imagined can lead to a powerful emotional response.

Understanding Emotions

Psychologists have long debated how emotions and thinking work together. Some believe that memory and thinking are completely separate processes that don’t influence each other. According to this view, emotions come first, and we only think about them afterward. Others argue the opposite: we evaluate what’s happening first and then feel the emotions that result. Interestingly, research supports both views to some extent. This ongoing debate highlights how emotional responses are often shaped by the situation itself and our personal interpretation of it. As a result, there’s still no single explanation for how thinking and feeling connect.

What is Thinking?

Woodworth described thinking as a form of mental exploration, while Ruch saw it as dealing with things that aren’t physically present but instead represented by symbols. In other words, thinking is a series of symbolic actions that reflect our past experiences and shape our thoughts. Most of the time, we’re engaged in thinking in some form. Even when we’re not reading, writing, or talking, our minds continue to wander—to the past, present, or future, and to positive or negative ideas. Daydreaming, reflecting, and planning all fall under the umbrella of thinking. Ultimately, it’s this constant flow of thoughts that defines how we make sense of the world and respond to it emotionally.

Conclusion

In conclusion, memory and learning are essential processes that work together to shape how we understand and interact with the world. They involve complex stages of encoding, storage, and retrieval, with different types of memory contributing in unique ways. While our capacity to remember can be affected by age and health, the brain’s remarkable plasticity ensures that learning and growth can continue throughout life. By understanding the principles of memory and learning, we can find better ways to support our mental well-being and maintain cognitive health across the lifespan.

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